Предмет задачи и методы общей психологии: Предмет и задачи общей психологии

«Психология» Петровский А.В. 2005

«Введение в общую психологию» Гиппенрейтер
Ю.Б.

«Психология» Немов Р.С. учебник в трёх
книгах, нужна первая.

Психология
(psyche
– душа, logos
– наука) – наука, изучающая душу человека.

Психология
–
наука, изучающая наделённого психикой
субъекта

Психология
– психическая душевная жизнь. Она сама
обозначает психическую реальность,
внутренний мир человека. Здесь психология
представляет собой совокупность типичных
для конкретного человека предпочтений,
установок.

Психология
– совокупность неких внутренних
особенностей отдельного субъекта.

Особенности
психологии как науки:

1.
Психологии должно быть отведено отдельное
место.

Считается,
что психология – это наука о самом
сложном. Психология нечто неуловимое.

2.
В психологии сливаются объект и субъект
познания – человек изучает сам себя.

3.
Психология поставляет уникальный
практический материал. Считается, что
познать чем-то, это означает овладеть
чем-то. Психология накапливает факты,
описывающие закономерности нашего
внутреннего мира и эти знания помогаю
нам поменять самих себя. Это наука
конструирующая. Помогающая менять себя
и своих окружающих.

Психологию
нельзя отнести ни к техническим, ни к
естественным, ни к гуманитарным наукам.
Психологически знания используются
как в гуманитарных науках, так и в
естественных.

Возникает
вопрос, зачем
нужна психологическая наука,
ведь в нашем возрасте каждый человек
обладает уже достаточным знанием
психологических процессов. Но всё же
житейская психология (совокупность
знаний, которые мы получаем в жизни) и
научная психология имеют отличие:

1.
Житейская психология накапливает знание
в круге жизненных ситуаций, с которыми
мы сталкиваемся. Научные же знания
обобщены. Научные знания лаконичны,
чётки и универсальны.

2.
Житейская психология носит интуитивный
характер – знания накапливаются
интуитивно, познаем мы других людей
интуитивно, не ставя конкретных задач
и не формализируя их. При этом научные
психологические знания вполне осознанны.
Для их получения формулируются гипотезы,
проводят эксперименты.

3.
Способ передачи знаний.
Житейские знания передаются с трудом
– в виде советов. В науке всё сформулированное
передаётся легко, так как это всё написано
и накоплено, в любой жизненной ситуации
можно обратиться к этим источникам.

4.
Способ
получения знаний.
Каждый человек накапливает психические
знания интуитивно и накапливая большой
запас их из своей жизни. В научной
психологии основным методом является
эксперимент. Он помогает получить
абсолютно точные психологические
знания.

5.
Научная психология обладает обширным
материалом, совершенно недоступным
одному человеку.

Объект
и предмет психологии

Объект
научного познания –
та сфера, где ведётся поиск. Психология
в большинстве своём изучает человека.

Предмет
– психика,
причём не только человека. Но и животных.

Психика
представляет собой сумму различных
психических явлений и проявлений.

Психика

Психические
явления

Психические
процессы

Психическое
состояние

Психические
свойства

Познание

Эмоционально-волевые

Психические
процессы
– это первичные регуляторы поведения
человека. Они имеют своё начало, течение
и конец. Мы постоянно в контакте с
реальностью, которая нас окружает, при
этом любой контакт с реальностью имеет
для нас определённую эмоциональную
окраску. В процессе любого познания
человек переживает определённое
эмоционально состояние. Здесь
психологические процессы связаны и
влекут за собой психические состояния.

Психические
состояния
– это состояние психики в целом, которые
имеют свою динамику, но характеризуются
большей длительностью; имеют свою
направленность, устойчивость и
интенсивность. К ним можно отнести
состояние тревожности, бодрость, сон,
уныние, прострацию, стресс.

Психические
свойства личности –
это класс психических явлений, который
характеризуется наиболее существенные
особенности личности, обеспечивающие
определённый количественный и качественный
уровень деятельности и поведение
человека. К ним относят темперамент,
направленность, способность человека.

Свойства
определяют уникальность, неповторимость
каждого человека. Они делают человека
непохожим ни на кого другого.

Психология
имеет дело не только с психическими
явлениями, но она изучает и групповые
субъекты (группы) и все эти психические
явления бывают и групповые. Психология
изучает групповые психические состояния:
конфликт, сплочённость, паника. Она
изучает и свойства: эффективность
деятельности, стили руководства и т.д.

На
современном этапе психология ставит
перед собой следующие задачи:

1.
Раскрыть сущность и закономерности
различных психических процессов и
явлений (дать им полную характеристику
и описать, по каким законам меняются)

2.
Выявить пути и средства оптимизации
деятельности человека, её более
рационального планирования и организации.

Развитие
представлений о предмете психологии

К
психике обратились сравнительно недавно
– в конце первой половины 20 века.

Этапы
развития психологической науки:

1.
Донаучный
этап (4
век до нашей эры – 16 век нашей эры). На
этом этапе предметом исследования
являлась душа, изучали различные душевные
явления. Но понятие душа так и не было
определено. К душевным относили все
процессы, происходящие в организме.
Основное достижение – в этот период
было заложено два подхода понимания
душевных явлений: идеалистические
(объяснял происхождение нематериальных
явлений) и материалистический (все
идеальные процессы являются производными
от материи).

2.
17 – начало 20 века. На этом этапе предметом
изучения исследований появился уже
достаточно весомый инструмент.
Исследователи обратились к процессу
самонаблюдения (где доступен самоотчёт).
Они фиксировали ощущения, эмоции,
связанные с особым фактом происходящим
с человеком. Сам метод привёл к тому,
что этот метод очень быстро закончился,
т.к. полученная информация была
противоречива. На этапе появляется
интроспекция – метод самонаблюдения.

3.
Начало 20 века – наши дни. На этом этапе
предметом психологии стало поведение.
Исследователи стали назваться
бихевиалистами, они первые провозгласили
тезис о том, что сознание не может быть
предметом научного исследования, так
его невозможно измерить и сопоставить.
Оно до сих пор развивается. Но с 30-х годов
стали появляться и другие методы. Предмет
психологии претерпел изменение. Стали
использовать метод эксперимента.

Метод
психологии

Метод

Основные Дополнительные

Эксперимент Наблюдение Опросы Беседы
Тесты

—
опросник

Лабораторные Естественные Письменные Устные —
задание

—
проективный

Самонаблюдение Внешнее
наблюдение Включённое наблюдение

1. Объект, предмет и задачи психологии.

Объектом исследованияпсихологии
и объектом приложения психологических
знаний является человек. Объектом
познания и применения знаний общей
психологии является здоровый человек.
Объектом исследования клинической
психологии и применения ее знаний
является больной человек.

Что же представляет сейчас та система
знаний, которые представляют предмет
психологической науки? Это психика
человека и животных, включающая в себя
различные субъективные (или психические)
явления. Одни из них человек использует,
чтобы познать мир и самого себя в нем.
Поэтому их называют познавательными
процессами. К ним относятся следующие:
1) ощущение; 2) восприятие;

3) внимание; 4) память; 5) воображение;
6) мышление; 7) речь.

Другие явления определяют направленность
активности человека, его отношение к
миру и людям, управляют поступками и
действиями человека. Их называют
мотивационными процессами. К ним
относятся: 1) потребности: 2) мотивы; 3)
цели; 4) интересы.

Есть такой класс явлений, которые
определяют процесс протекания деятельности
человека, задают его исполнительский
репертуар. Это умения, навыки, привычки,
стиль («индивидуальный почерк»)
деятельности, темперамент. Все вместе
эти процессы составляют инструментальную
сферу человека.

Существуют также такие интегральные
явления (характеристики), которые имеют
дело с целостным человеком, его
индивидуальными особенностями и которые
выражаются в его взаимоотношениях с
миром, регулируют его общение с людьми.
Их называют психическими свойствами
и состояниями. К ним относят: 1)
волю; 2) чувства; 3) эмоции;

4) склонности; 5) способности; 6) знания;
7) сознание; 8) личность; 9) индивидуальность,
характер.

Кроме того, психология изучает человеческое
общение и поведение, их зависимость от
психических явлений и, в свою очередь,
зависимость формирования и развития
психических явлений от них.

В настоящее время наблюдается бурное
развитие психологической науки,
обусловленное многообразием теоретических
и практических задач, встающих перед
ней.

Основными задачами психологииявляются: 1) выявление законов психики;
2) раскрытие тех связей и отношений,
которые можно было бы классифицировать
как закономерные; 3) установление
механизмов психической деятельности;
4) изучение природы и действия этих
механизмов совместно с другими науками.

В течение последних десятилетий
значительно расширился фронт
психологических исследований, появились
новые научные направления и дисциплины.
Изменился понятийный аппарат
психологической науки, непрерывно
появляются новые гипотезы и концепции,
психология обогащается новыми
эмпирическими данными. Для психологии
исследование поведения не самоцель, а
средство, путь познания законов, по
которым строится внутренняя картина
мира.

Таким образом, психология является
наукой, изучающей факты, закономерности
и механизмы психики, своеобразие
протекания психических явлений в
зависимости от условий деятельности и
от индивидуально-типологических
особенностей человека.Современная
психология представляет собой систему
наук, в которой центральное место
принадлежит общей психологии.

90000 Psychology: 2 90001 Psychology:
2

90002
Jacques Maritain Center:
Psychology / by Michael Maher, S.J. 90003 90004 CHAPTER II. 90005
90006 METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGY. 90007 90008

90009 Psychology a Science. 90010 — In describing Psychology as the science of the human mind or soul, three conditions are implied — 90011 first 90012, that Psychology has a definite subject-matter, the nature and activities of the thinking subject; 90011 secondly 90012, that it possesses an efficient method; 90011 thirdly 90012, that it comprehends a systematized body of general truths, or, in other words, that it embraces a number of facts in their relations to their universal causes.In our first hapter we sought to mark out clearly the field of our science; in the present we propose to describe its method, pointing out the chief instruments of investigation which lie open to us; the rest of the work will be devoted to the satisfaction of the third essential requirement. 90017 90008

90009 The Subjective or Introspective Method. 90010 — The subject-matter of Empirical Psychology is 90011 consciousness 90012. Now states of consciousness can only be observed by 90011 introspection 90012 — that is, by the turning of the mind in on itself.Consequently this faculty of internal observation must be our chief instrument in the study of the mind. To its adjudication must be the first as well as the ultimate appeal in every

psychological problem. Mental states can only be apprehended by each man’s own consciousness. Their reality consists in this apprehension — their 90011 esse 90012 is 90011 percipi 90012. Therefore the endeavour to decide as to their nature or origin by information gathered from any other source is obviously absurd.The greatest care must, however, be taken to notice accurately all the aspects of the phenomena presented to us, and to detect those numerous unobtrusive differences in the character of mental phenomena which may indicate profound divergency in the nature of their source. The injudicious observer, impressed by the greater intensity of sentient states, may thus easily ignore the more subtle activities of our higher rational life, and so be led to form a conception of mind from which the most important features are absent.90029 90030 {1} 90031 90032 90017 90008

Still, although our mental states are of an evanescent character, and enjoy but a transitory existence, it must nevertheless be insisted on that they are facts as real as any in the universe. A sensation, an intellectual judgment, or a volition, possesses as much reality as a nervous current, a chemical solution, or a transit of Venus; and whilst the most thorough-going sceptic can not question the

existence of states of consciousness, ingenious and acute thinkers have been found over and over again to deny us all certainty regarding material objects.This mode of investigating psychical phenomena by means of internal observation is called the 90011 Subjective 90012 or 90011 Introspective 90012 Method. 90017 90008

90009 Objective Method. 90010 — Introspection must be supplemented, however, by other lines of research, if we wish to make our conclusions as trustworthy and as widely applicable as possible. Appeal to hese additional means of information constitutes what is called the 90011 Objective Method 90012 of inquiry, since they form part of the outside world, and are apprehended only through the external senses.But evidence gained in this way is of an essentially secondary or supplementary value, its chief use being that of suggestion or corroboration. The principal forms of objective investigation are the following: 90017 90008

1. 90011 Other minds. 90012 — The results of other men’s observations of their own minds as far as these results can be gathered from oral description, and compared with the results of our own individual experience. 90017 90008

2. 90011 Language.90012 — The products of the human mind embodied in language may afford valuable information. Comparative philology and the study of various literatures are here our chief resources. Language has been happily styled crystallized or fossilized thought, and under skilful handling it may be made to unfold many interesting secrets of past mental history. Thus the rich and varied vocabulary

of the Tagan dialect, which contains over 30,000 words, a vast inherited wealth far beyond the needs of the present generation, is maintained by Professor Max Müller to point to a degradation of that race from a previous condition of considerable mental development, rather than to a gradual evolution from a lower and less intellectual state.90029 90030 {2} 90031 90032 Similarly the presence in various languages ​​of words connoting certain moral ideas may constitute important testimony in disputed interpretations of consciousness. 90017 90008

3. 90011 Historical or Genetic Method. 90012 — A diligent study of the human mind as manifested at different periods of life, and in different grades of civilization, may throw much light on the laws which govern the development of the mental faculties, and on the conditions which have given rise to various customs, sentiments, and modes of thought.Historical researches into the manners, religions, and social institutions of different nations may here prove very fruitful. 90017 90008

4. 90011 Animal Psychology. 90012 — The study of the instincts, habits, and other psychical activities of the lower animals, if undertaken in a sober and judicious spirit, can be made to yield considerable assistance in some questions. This sphere of investigation, when grouped with that just mentioned, is

sometimes rather questionably dignified with the title of 90011 Comparattve Psychology 90012.However, the anthropomorphic tendency in man to project his own thoughts and sentiments into other beings renders this scientific instrument peculiarly liable to abuse. Still subject to proper precautions it may assist us materially. By means of it we may advantageously apply the great inductive methods of difference and residues. The lower animals possess certain faculties in common with man, but they are deficient in others, and hence by a diligent study of their actions we are enabled to distinguish how much of man’s conduct is necessarily due to different faculties.90017 90008

5. 90011 Physiology. 90012 — The science of Physiology is also valuable information. The intimate nature of the relations between the mind and the organism, so strongly emphasized in the Aristotelian and Scholastic Philosophy which conceives the soul as the 90011 form 90012 of the body, receives more elucidation every day with the advance of biological science. In examining into the operations of sense, the development of imagination and memory, the formation of habits, and the transmission of hereditary tendencies, the advantage of a knowledge of the physical basis of these phenomena is obvious; but as all mental processes, even the most purely spiritual acts of intellect and volition, are probably accompanied or conditioned by cerebral changes, too much labour can not be devoted to the study of the constitution, structure, and working of the organism.At the same time care must be taken

to distinguish clearly between the two orders of facts. The mental state and its physiological accompaniment or condition are separated, as Professor Tyndall says, by an «impassable chasm.» It is then not sufficient to explicitly admit once or twice, as most writers of the Sensist school do admit, that the neural and psychical events are divided by a difference which transcends all other differences, and then to forget, or lead the reader to forget , the vital character of this difference.The mental states must be treated and described throughout in such a way that no confusion between the two kinds of phenomena is caused to arise in the student’s mind, and he must not be misled into supposing that a conscious process has been finally explained when its physical correlate has been indicated, or when the whole operation has been described in cloudy physiological language. 90017 90008

6. 90011 Pathology: Psychiatry. 90012 — Hand in hand with Physiology goes Pathology, the complementary science of organic disease; and the opportunities presented in the investigations connected with this branch of knowledge for the observation of mental activities in an isolated or abnormal condition will occasionally throw light on obscure questions.Somnambulism, illusions, hallucinations, and various forms of insanity exhibit particular mental functions under exceptional conditions, and not infrequently suggest or confirm explanations of special mental operations. Similarly, the study of those deprived of different senses may advance the scientific analysis of normal perception and the discovery of how

much is due to the various faculties. But here again judgment is required, and we must be on our guard against assigning too much weight to irregular and exceptional cases.The emotional interest excited by abnormal occurrences may easily lead us to exaggerate their philosophical importance, and to Forget that after all the proper subject-matter of our; cience is the 90011 mens sana in corpore sano 90012. The reality if this danger becomes apparent when we find vriters on Psychology founding their theories as to the nature of the soul, or of its cognitive operations, not on the observation of the activities of the normal healthy mind, but on dubious conjectures regarding some obscure ill-understood forms of mental aberration that appear perhaps once among a hundred thousand human beings.90017 90008

7. 90011 Experimental Psychology: Psycho-physics: Psychometry. 90012 — Closely connected with physiological psychology are certain methods of investigation somemes styled 90011 Experimental Psychology 90012. Strictly speaking, whenever we deliberately exert or cause another to exert any form of mental activity in order observe it we perform «a psychological experiment.» But the term Experimental Psychology is commonly confined to the more elaborate methods modifying mental operations in order to study them.Various ingenious means have been recently invented for estimating the power and accuracy of imagination, memory, and the several senses; and numerous «psychological laboratories» have been erected for carrying on these investigations in Germany, America, and elsewhere. The terms

90011 psychometry 90012 and 90011 psycho-physics 90012 are more especially employed to denote sundry methods employed for measuring the duration of simple mental processes and also the relation between the intensity of sensations and their stimuli.We shall return to this subject again. 90017 90008

90009 These Methods not new. 90010 — We have here explicitly enumerated the various sources from which our science draws its materials, but, although it has only in recent times become customary thus to classify them in detail, all of them except the last have been made use of by writers on the philosophy of the mind since the days of Plato and Aristotle. Some recent authors appear at times to believe that these methods of inductive inquiry are a result of modern discovery, and that surprising advances of an undefined character have been, or in the immediate future will be, effected by their means in our knowledge of the nature of the mind.A comparatively brief study, however, of Aristotle’s great work on the soul, and of his supplementary treatises on special psychological questions, will show how fully he appreciated the value of these extended fields of information. 90029 90030 {3} 90031 90032 90017 90008

90009 Rational Psychology: Method. 90010 — The method pursued in Rational Psychology will be mainly inferential. From the truths established in the earlier part of our work as regards the life of the soul, we shall draw inferences as to its inner constitution; from the character of the activity we shall argue to the nature of the agent, from the degree of perfection in the effect we shall reason up to that of the cause.90017 90008

90009 Attacks on Psychology. 90010 — The scope just assigned to Psychology is objected to by writers of widely different schools in this country, so it may be well to add a few supplementary remarks in defence of our position. Opponents we may divide into three classes. Some deny the possibility of a science either of Rational or Phenomenal Psychology. Others, admitting the existence of a genuine science of the phenomena of the mind, deny the possibility of any real knowledge regarding the nature or existence of the soul.Others, again, whilst allowing with this second class the value of Empirical Psychology, exclude from its treatment various questions, such as the freedom of the will, and the origin of intellectual ideas, on the ground that these are metaphysical or philosophical problems to be treated of elsewhere. As regards this last view, the divergence from us may be mainly one of method and classification. Provided these questions are satisfactorily discussed in some branch of Philosophy, it does not appear vital what department be selected.We may, however, point out that Psychology, the philosophy of the mind, seems to be under more distinct obligations to face these problems than any other science; and, in the second place, as we have already stated, any attempt at adequate treatment of mental phenomena will inevitably involve some particular philosophical view as to the nature of our faculties. 90017 90008

The only sufficient answer to writers of the second class — those who deny the possibility of a rational science of the soul — is to work out a systematized body of certain truths regarding its nature, and the relations subsisting between it and the body.This we will endeavour to accomplish in the Second Book of the present volume. That a work claiming to be a treatise on Psychology ought to make some such

attempt seems so manifest that it is difficult to understand why the duty should be so uniformly ignored in English manuals. Locke’s influence and the national distaste for metaphysical argument has had much to do with it, but probably the authority of the Scotch school has had still more. For it was to Reid and Stewart those most interested in a satisfactory exposition of the evidence bearing on the existence and character of the human soul naturally looked for a proper vindication of the subject.Unfortunately, idolatry of empirical fact and contempt for deductive reasoning reached a climax in the common-sense school. As a consequence, the worship of the Baconian method in its most exaggeratedly vicious form wrought that evil in the science of the mind which it would assuredly have effected, had it been as faithfully followed, in the study of external nature. 90029 90030 {4} 90031 90032 Thus we find that whilst in Germany and other Continental countries mental philosophy was approached with a view to the solution of the most interesting and important problems that can occupy the human spirit, British psychologists have been seeking to convert their science into a mere natural history of psychical phenomena.Any attempt at a comprehensive treatment of our mental activities is stigmatized as an illegitimate introduction of philosophical problems, and we have finally reached a stage in which even such a clearly psychological question as the freedom of the will is to be rigidly boycotted on the grounds of its connexion with the discredited science of metaphysics. 90017 90008

90009 Objections to Introspection. 90010 — As regards the third class of opponents — those who deny the possibility of a genuine science even of phenomenal psychology — since they attack the foundations on which our whole work rests, we will here state and answer briefly their chief arguments.The leading

representatives of this view have been Comte in France, and Dr. Maudsley at home. Both teach that Psychology is merely a subsidiary department of Biology, and that it must be studied exclusively or mainly by objective methods. Dr. Maudsley states the case against Psychology at length in the earlier part of his work, 90011 The Physiology of Mind 90012. But in this, as indeed in other philosophical questions, that vigorous writer does not appear to hold very clear or consistent opinions even throughout the course of the same volume.90017 90008

1. He urges that Psychology, as a distinct independent science built up by introspection is impossible, for introspection is itself impossible «In order to observe its own action it is necessary that the mind pause from activity yet it is the train of activity that is to be observed. » (90011 The Physiology of Mind 90012, p. 17.) 90017 90008

This assertion we dispute, and in support of our view we would appeal to each man’s inner experience. 90011 First 90012, as regards the various modes of our sentient life, sensations, perceptions, appetites, pleasures, and pains, our only difficulty is to understand how such a statement as that attention to them causes their immediate annihilation could ever have been penned.Life could be made happy without much difficulty if our disagreeable states and experiences would vanish when we turned observe them; but unfortunately cold, hunger, thirst, disease, the pains of muscular strain, and of tooth-ache are not such obliging visitors. The activities of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, can certainly be studied both in actual operation on their objects, and as reproduced in imagination. 90011 Secondly 90012, that we can attend to and examine our higher forms of mental activity is equally certain.Emotions, desires, perceptions of relations, reasonings can be both concomitantly studied in their direct course 90029 90030 {5} 90031 90032 and afterwards

recalled by memory. This is due equally in either case to the self-conscious power of the mind, and implies in us a higher order of mental activity than that involved in mere sentient affections. Our only proof of this, as well as of every other psychological fact, must be an appeal to each man’s own consciousness. 90017 90008

2.Again, it is a maxim of «inductive philosophy that observation should begin with simple instances, ascent being made from them step by step through appropriate generalizations» (Maudsley, p. 19.) Moreover, science being universal, the psychologist should be able to contemplate a variety of specimens which exhibit the object of his investigations in its various stages of development. But introspection presents only a single subject for examination, and that a most rare and exceptional one, «the complex self-consciousness of an educated white man.»Consequently, even were introspection possible, its deliverances would be deprived of that feature of universality essential to every genuine science. To this we may reply in the first place that, were a number of anatomists limited each to the study of a single human organism , they would still be able to frame a collection of results containing a substantial amount of agreement. Secondly, comparison of observations among psychologists, appeal to general experience, and the several objective methods we have described, and which have been in use from

the very birth of Psychology, completely destroy the force of the supposed difficulty.90017 90008

3. A kindred objection is urged against the necessary limitation of introspective observation, to a single observer, «a witness whose evidence can be taken by no one but himself, and whose veracity, therefore, can not be tested…. The observed and the observer are one, and the observer is not likely in such a case to be unbiassed by the feelings of the observed, and to conform rigidly to the rules of exact observation. » (90011 id. 90012) The answer to the last objection will apply again in great part here.Further, (a) the psychologist, like the physiologist and every other scientific inquirer, must seek to lay aside prejudice and to approach his subject in an impartial spirit. (B) He must, like them, exercise care and diligence. And (c) he must check his results by comparison with those of other observers, and by the study of other minds through the various supplementary methods. 90017 90008

4. Dr. Maudsley also argues that the range of introspection is very limited. (A) «Consciousness which does not even tell us that we have a brain is certainly incompetent to give any account of the essential material conditions of our mental life.»(P. 21.) (b) Mental life itself, too, is largely beyond the range of introspection.» It is a truth which can not too distinctly be borne in mind, that consciousness is not co-extensive with mind. «( p. 25.) As regards the first part of the difficulty it might, perhaps, be not unfairly retorted against the physiologist that the method of external observation on which his science is based can tell us nothing of the mental conditions which profoundly influence many physical processes. Letting this pass, however, it is sufficient to recall to mind that conscious states and mental activities are real facts differing in kind from all physical events, in order to give them as good claim to form adequate matter for an independent science as physiology has to be separated from chemistry or mechanics.Finally, that the study of the physical conditions of conscious processes is a legitimate source of useful supplementary

information has been, as we before urged, fully admitted from the time of Aristotle; but unfortunately, owing to the hitherto extremely backward condition of the science of Physiology in general, and especially in that department which deals with physical basis of mental life, it can afford very little reliable information of any importance. 90017 90008

5.Dr. Maudsley also argues that the illusions and hallucinations of the insane seem to them as clear and evident affirmations of consciousness, as do the introspective observations of the psychologist. Therefore the latter are untrustworthy. This objection is trivial. Insanity is, unhappily, a possible contingency among the investigators both of soul and body, but science will not be ultimately injured by such casualties. 90017 90008

6. Finally, it is urged, as a general proof of the worthlessness of Subjective Psychology, that «there is no agreement between those who have acquired the power of introspection.»(90011 id. 90012) This objection is based on a confusion of two very distinct questions — the character of the mental states of which psychologists affirm that they are conscious, and the hypotheses or explanations which they advance to account for these states. As regards the former, that there is a very large amount of general agreement, any one who consults the psychological literature even of schools the most opposed will discover. On the other hand, wide and manifold divergence in the theories advanced to explain the origin and nature of mental life, the history of Philosophy since the great scholastic stream of thought was abandoned unequivocally demonstrates.But that is not the fault of introspection any more than conflicting views as to the source of the sun’s heat are a reflection on the trustworthiness of the telescope. 90017 90008

90009 Real Difficulties. 90010 — We have treated Dr. Maudsley’s objections at such great length, not on account of any considerable importance we assign to his work, but because the discussion of his arguments helps to make clear to the student the actual difficulties and limitations of the Introspective Method.For it must be admitted

that internal observation is often not easy. Mental states, unlike the objects of physical science, are unstable and ever changing. They are not independent of concomitant states. Even though it be untrue that 90011 all 90012 introspection must be retrospective, yet the more vehement forms of mental excitement can be adequately studied only by means of recollection. The imitation, too, of direct observation to a single specimen with its inevitable peculiarities may be attended by serious risks.Bias and intellectual prejudices may unconsciously interfere with the correct appreciation of facts, and our very familiarity with our mental states increases the labour of accurate observation. Still these hindrances to introspection can be overcome by (a) diligence and attention, (b) the skill acquired by practice of reflection, (c) industry in repeating our observations under varied conditions and the employment of recollection in studying afterwards states which can not be well examined whilst actually occurring, (d) honest effort to be unprejudiced and impartial in the observation of facts and to be on our guard against the more impressive features of imagination and sensuous states; finally, by (e) making the fullest use of the various supplementary objective methods to test and confirm the results of direct introspection.90017 90008

90011 Readings. 90012 — On the opposition in nature between Psychology and objective sciences, cf. Dr. Martineau’s 90011 Essays Philosophical and Theogical 90012, «Cerebral Psychology,» pp. 245-253. On the various methods, cf. Pesch, 90011 Institutiones Psych. 90012 §§ 25-30; Dr. Gutberlet, 90011 Die Psychologie 90012 (Munster) pp. 1-15; and F. Mark Baldwin, 90011 Sense and Intellect 90012, pp. 20-32. On objections to the possibility of Psychology, cf. Pesch, 90011 ib.90012 §§ 31-34. On the necessity of a consistent theory of Rational Psychology, even for a complete view of the physiological conditions of mental activity, cf. Professor Ladd’s 90011 Physiological Psychology 90012, pp. 585, 586; see also «Mind» and «Psychology,» by the Author in the 90011 Catholic Encyclopedia 90012.
90017 90003 90008

{1} The truth of this remark is strikingly illustrated in the history of Mental Philosophy in this country by the manner in which the relational activity of the mind — its power of apprehending universal relations — has been ignored or misconceived by the entire sensationalist school from Hartley to Dr.Bain. The writings of Stirling, Green, Bradley, and other thinkers of Hegelian tendencies have had in recent years the good effect of bringing about the re-discovery of this intellectual faculty, which occupied such a prominent position in the psychological system of the leading scholastic philosophers . 90017 90008

{2} Cf. «The Savage,» 90011 Nineteenth Century 90012, January, 2885, p. 120. Professor Max Müller there argues very forcibly, that «the magnificent ruins in the dialects, whether of Fuegians, Mohawks, or Hottentots, tell us of mental builders whom no one could match at present.»The Tagan language is that spoken by the natives of Terra del Fuego, the race which Darwin considered to be the lowest and least developed family of human beings yet found. 90017 90008

{3} M. St. Hilaire has shown clearly how accurate were the views of the founder of the Peripatetic school on the use of the inductive methods in Psychology. (Cf. 90011 Psychologie d’Aristote 90012, pp. Lii. — lxv.) 90017 90008

{4} On the reaction against the pure Baconian doctrine of method in recent times, see Jevons ‘90011 Principles of Science 90012, Vol.II. c. xxiii. He remarks that «its value may he estimated historically by the fact that it has not been followed hy any of the great masters of science.» (P. 134.) 90017 90008

{5} Mr. Sully, who defends the introspective method, yet seems to that immediate concomitant consideration of 90011 present 90012 mental states is impossible, that it is only last states we can properly be said to observe, and that in fact «all introspection is retrospection» 90011 Illusions 90012, p. 190, and 90011 Outlines of Psychology 90012, p.5.) This tenet is a necessary deduction from the sensationist theory of mental life, but the logical position for the disciple of that school is that assumed by Dr. Maudsley, and not the halting inconsistent doctrine of Mr. Sully. To the mind endowed with no activity essentially higher than that of the sensuous order, both introspection and introspection are equally impossible. But that the human mind is capable of concomitantly observing its own normal states becomes clear to any one making the attempt.It is actually the converse of Mr. Sully’s dictum which expresses the truth, «All retrospection involves present introspection,» for, it is the Present representation of the past state which is examined, and only while actually present to the mind can it be the subject of observation. But if we can attend to a present state which happens to be an image of a past state, surely there can be nothing to prevent attention to a state which is not such a representation. Consequently we can concomitantly study those mental processes of which we are conscious.In a word, as Mill urges against Comte, «Whatever we are directly aware of we can directly observe.» (90011 Auguste Comte and Positivism 90012, p. 64.) 90017
90008 90009 << ======= >> 90010 90017

.90000 What is the Difference between General Psychology and Social Psychology? 90001 90002 There are so many sub-fields and specialties in psychology that it’s often hard to keep them straight, especially when some of them have more than one name. It does not help that there are various systems of classification that sometimes differ greatly from each other. So we’ll try to clear up some of this mess by describing general psychology and social psychology and explaining some of the branches of general psychology.90003 90004 90005 General Psychology 90006 90002 General psychology is a term that refers to the entire science of psychology. Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior, including the study of perception, motivation, emotions, personality, relationships and the unconscious. Psychology is a broad field of science, especially considering that it overlaps other sciences; psychology sprang from other sciences like physics, biology, chemistry, sociology, anthropology and philosophy, and it still bears a strong relationship with these parental sciences.90003 90002 Many psychology students get a bachelor’s degree in general psychology, which provides them with a chance to either obtain a master’s degree in a specialty field or to go into the workplace to get an entry-level position in a psychology field. 90003 90002 Here are some of the main branches of general psychology, including social psychology: 90003 90013 Experimental Psychology 90014 90002 This was the original branch of psychology, the «trunk» from which all the other branches sprang.The primary activity of experimental psychologists is to research sensation, perception, conditioning, learning and motor behavior in humans and animals. Comparative psychology and physiological psychology are usually classified under experimental psychology. All three of these types rely heavily upon physics, chemistry and biology, and all three are laboratory-based. 90003 90013 Clinical Psychology and Counseling Psychology 90014 90002 These two types of psychology are similar in that both deal with the testing, diagnosis, counseling and treatment of patients with psychological problems.The difference between them is that clinical psychologists deal with patients who are more seriously disturbed, usually to the point of being institutionalized. 90003 90013 Industrial-organizational Psychology 90014 90002 Industrial-organizational psychology uses psychological methods to optimize the productivity of workers and to keep them psychologically healthy. This type of psychology is also used in hiring and evaluating workers. 90003 90013 Forensic Psychology 90014 90002 Forensic psychology is the application of psychology in the field of criminal justice.Forensic psychologists are often called as expert witnesses regarding the fitness of a witness to testify in a trial. They also can testify in court cases involving child custody, personal injury or insanity pleas. Some forensic psychologists help hire or evaluate law enforcement officers, and some provide law enforcement agencies with criminal profiles or polygraph interpretations. 90003 90005 Social Psychology 90006 90002 Social psychology is the study of how people’s feelings, thoughts and behavior are affected by social conditioning, social situations and society-at-large.It studies the formation of personal beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, stereotypes and biases and the influence that society has in that formation. This is a relatively new, research-based field that concerns itself with measurable values. 90003 90002 Social psychologists study how people act in the presence of others, and how it differs from the way people act when they’re alone. Social psychologists look at the social conditions that cause people to feel or act a certain way. They also study the influence that television and other social media have on people.90003 90002 90036 Related Reading 90037: How to Become a Social Psychologist 90003 90002 Social psychologists place a heavy reliance upon empirical findings and laboratory experiments, and their theories tend to be focused and specific rather than general or universal. They make liberal use of the theories and findings of anthropology and sociology, applying them in their psychological studies of individuals. But while anthropologists and sociologists focus mainly upon the effects of large societies and cultural values ​​upon individuals, social psychologists focus more upon the interactions individuals have with smaller groups of people, such as gangs, clubs, committees, church groups, juries or groups of friends .Social psychologists study groups of workers to determine things like how the group dynamic affects productivity, and they study crowds to see how individual attitudes change in the midst of a crowd. 90003 90002 Social psychology did not become an important field of study under after World War II, when the horror of the Holocaust led researchers to begin studying conformity, obedience and the «mass mind» or «mob mentality» that leads good people to do horrible things they’d normally never do on their own.The U.S. government also grew interested in social psychology at that time, mainly because it wanted to use the principles of social psychology to influence its citizens. Social society has grown in importance in subsequent years in part because of its importance in advertising. 90003 90002 The way we perceive our place in the world plays an important role in forming our choices, behaviors and beliefs, and the opinions of others also plays a big part. For example, social psychologists have confirmed the concept called «groupthink,» where people often go along with the majority opinion rather than cause disruption.90003 90013 Related Reading 90014 90013 Useful Resources 90014.90000 THE SUBJECT MATTER OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS. 90001

90002 For many years language was approached as just a system, outside the processes of its acquisition and use. Nowadays it has become quite popular to study language in action, taking into account the human factor. There has been a great interest in the analysis of different parameters of the communicative speech situation, like time place and social environment. It is evident that when we speak, we are influenced by everything around us as well as by our own inner selves.It would be very easy to analyze texts, if people spoke like computers, following the principle of formal logic and that of economy. Luckily, it is not so. If we were absolutely logical, trying to relate to others, our speech would be very dull and lifeless 90003 90004. 90005 90006 90007
90002 Psycholinguistics is one of several linguistic disciplines which focus on the relationship between language structures and the one who uses them It stands on the borderline between Psychology and Linguistics.The subject matter of 90003 Psychology 90006 is the nature and function of the human soul. The term itself is derived from the two Greek words psyche which means soul and logos which stands for science. There are three aspects in the human soul: mind, will and emotions, and all of them are studied by Psychology. The subject matter of Psycholinguistics is, of course, narrower. It is not concerned with human soul as it is. Its scope of interest is human ability to use language. 90007
90002 On the other hand, Psycholinguistics is not a completely independent discipline, it is a branch of 90003 General Linguistics 90006.90007
90002 Psycholinguistics can be briefly defined as a branch of language science studying speech behavior of man. 90003 90004 B.Skinner 90005 90006, a famous American psychologist, suggests that language is a part of a more encompassing human behavior. 90007
90002 Psycholinguistics was officially recognized as a discipline, as a branch of linguistics in 1953 in the city of Bloomington, USA. It was based on the principles of the theory of information. The key terms that were used were 90004 sender 90005, 90004 channel 90005 and 90004 recipient 90005.The importance of using the channel effectively was underlined. The channel is described in terms of effectiveness and reliability. The 90003 effectiveness 90006 of the channel is related to the number of the bites of information that can be conveyed for a certain time unit. It means that the more information is conveyed for, let us say, an hour or a minute the more effective the channel is. 90007
90002 The reliability of the channel can be defined as the answer to the question Is there any difference between what was sent and what was received? To increase the reliability the speaker may want to speak slower, repeating the same over and over again, which, of course, will decrease the effectiveness of the channel.It has been proved for example that the study material covered by an average half-an-hour lecture could be successfully presented for just twenty minutes, if the teacher were after the efficiency of the channel only. However, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the students to receive pure semiological (or logical) information, not dissolved by any flashbacks or jokes. Normal speech is half-reliable and half-effective. 90007
90002 n 1954 a book by 90003 90004 Ch. Osgood 90005 90006 and 90003 90004 L.Sebeok 90005 90006 was published. The title of it was Psycholinguistics: A study of Theory and Research Problems and it gave birth to psycholinguistics as an independent discipline. Psycholinguistics is defined as a science which provides for the use of linguistic analysis of grammar to identify the mental and behavioral processes which underlie language acquisition and development. 90003 90004 Ch. Osgood 90005 90006 suggested a three-level model of the derivation of the utterance. The speaker (sender) realizes his communicative intention step by step, level by level, choosing one of the possible phonetic, lexical and morphological variants.According to 90003 90004 P.L. Newcomer 90005 90006 and 90003 90004 D.D. Hannill 90005 90006, psycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes which underlie the acquisition and use of language. 90007

90002 90003 A.A. Leontyev 90006, defines the subject matter of psycholinguistics as the relationship between language system and linguistic competence. What is meant, scholars no longer focus on language as a system, but they also analyze the persons ability to use the linguistic units and structures more effectively.90007

90002
90061: 90062

90007

.90000 Organizational Psychology Degrees | What You’ll Study 90001

90002 90003 Here are some examples of the subjects you’ll study when you pursue an organizational psychology degree. 90004 90005

90006

90002 Organizational psychology is a very diverse field, with companies and organizations large and small employing these specialists. So, it’s logical that you might have questions before you start your studies. 90005

90002 You might want to especially know what degrees are required for the various subfields you might pursue under the larger I / O psychology umbrella.90005

90002 Keep reading to learn more about what you’ll study at each degree level. 90005

90013 What degree levels are available? 90014

90002 First, you’ll pursue a four-year bachelor’s degree in psychology or another field. Most students who want to work in the I / O psychology field earn their bachelors in general psychology and then a master’s (the basic degree needed to enter the field) or doctorate. Some students enter a joint bachelors / master’s degree program or find courses in the business school that relate to industrial and organizational, and human resources specialties.90005

90017 Bachelor’s Degree Programs 90018

90002 Undergraduate preparation for an industrial-organizational psychology graduate program can take one of two forms. Ideally, you’ll want to look for a program that offers focused BA or BS degrees in Industrial-Organizational Psychology, but such programs are few and far between. More often, you’ll find psychology programs that offer an emphasis or concentration in industrial psychology or organizational management. 90005

90002 To showcase typical courses you’ll take to earn a bachelor’s degree, below is a partial outline of courses in the Industrial-Organizational Psychology Online Degree Program at Southern New Hampshire University.The program is a specialization within SNHU’s Bachelor of Business Studies. 90005

90023 Examples of Major Courses 90024

90025 90026 90003 Introduction to Psychology: 90004 This course is an introduction to various areas of psychology, including scientific investigation, motivation, personality, intelligence, behavioral deviation, perception, learning, and human development. 90029 90026 90003 Research Methods: 90004 Students in this course will develop an understanding of a variety of research methods, including experimental, survey, co-relational and case-history techniques 90029 90026 90003 Social Psychology: 90004 Social psychology is an interesting, dynamic study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.Issues discussed include prejudice, conformity, interpersonal attraction, and violence. The scientific methods of studying such phenomena are emphasized. 90029 90026 90003 Industrial-Organizational Psychology: 90004 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology, an applied field in psychology focused to improve the effectiveness of the workplace through research, assessment, and interventions allowing for enhancement of the office climate, improvement of group and individual performance and overall organizational goals.90029 90026 90003 Cognitive Psychology: 90004 Applied topics will include learning skills to help improve memory, accommodating memory / language disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease and dyslexia, and understanding how brain scanning techniques can be used to understand memory. 90029 90026 90003 Assessment and Testing: 90004 Students in this course will become aware of the use and abuse of psychometric techniques. Specific techniques that currently are used will be introduced and understood.90029 90050

90017 Master’s Degree Programs 90018

90002 The next step for most psychology students interested in an I / O career is an industrial-organizational psychology graduate program. Master’s degrees in industrial-organizational psychology have become increasingly common over the past twenty-five years. 90005

90002 A Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MS) in I / O psychology is a necessary first step to pursuing a doctorate in the field; however, a master’s degree may also be an end in itself.Career opportunities for master’s degree holders are often available in the business world rather than in academia, which usually demands a doctoral degree. 90005

90002 During your pursuit of a master’s in industrial-organizational psychology, you can expect to study the following subjects: 90005

90025 90026 Research methods and data analysis 90029 90026 Employee selection and placement 90029 90026 Performance evaluation and feedback 90029 90026 Theory and design of training programs 90029 90026 Work motivation and attitudes 90029 90026 Small group theory 90029 90026 Organizational theory and development 90029 90026 Human factors 90029 90026 Engineering psychology 90029 90026 Consumer psychology 90029 90026 Career development / personnel psychology 90029 90026 Labor relations 90029 90026 Compensation and benefits 90029 90050

90002 In an industrial-organizational psychology master’s program, you can expect to pursue most of your study through formal coursework in a classroom environment, unless you are enrolled in a distance learning program.Online programs require quite a lot of independent reading and study, demanding a high degree of self-discipline. Both in-person and online degrees may include supervised experience or training such as an internship or practicum, and most master’s programs require a written thesis as well. 90005

90017 Doctoral Programs 90018

90002 Becoming an industrial-organizational psychologist can also be achieved through a PhD program, which generally takes four to five years to complete. Psychologists who earn a PhD will find that they command a higher income and have superior employment opportunities in this competitive field.In particular, doctoral degrees are handy if you plan to work in the academic world. 90005

90002 Doctoral degrees in industrial-organizational psychology delve into quite a bit more depth than master’s degrees, but the exact requirements may vary depending on what type of degree you choose to pursue. A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program generally places more emphasis on research and completion of a dissertation, while a Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) program is a professional degree that focuses more on applied clinical practice.90005

90017 Industrial-Organizational Psychology PhD 90018

90002 For aspiring I / O psychologists with an interest in teaching at a college or university, or who plan to work in health or medical settings such as hospitals or medical schools, a doctoral degree can grant you a wider range of job opportunities. A Doctor of Philosophy, or PhD, is the most common doctoral degree in psychology, comprising 75 percent of doctorates awarded. Considered a «research degree,» a PhD will allow you to explore I / O psychology in more depth than a master’s degree, and usually requires a final dissertation based on original research.90005

90017 Industrial-Organizational Psychology PsyD 90018

90002 More and more industrial-organizational psychology graduate programs are awarding Doctor of Psychology, or PsyD, degrees. These are professional psychology degrees that prepare graduates for work in a more applied or focused setting, such as government or private industry. Like a PhD, a PsyD usually takes about 5 years of full-time study. However, instead of a dissertation, a PsyD may require practical work experience and examinations, emphasizing applied training over research.Like PhD programs, some PsyD programs also require supervised experience or internships. 90005

90013 What certification will I need to practice organizational psychology? 90014

90017 Industrial-Organizational Psychology Certification 90018

90002 Although certification is not required upon completion of an industrial-organizational psychology graduate program, some I / O psychologists seek out voluntary certification from the American Board of Organizational and Business Consulting Psychology (ABOBCP) in order to demonstrate competence in the field.Many I / O psychologists also choose to join the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology-membership in professional organizations can help show your commitment to career excellence. 90005

90017 Becoming a Licensed Industrial-Organizational Psychologist 90018

90002 The purpose of licensing in industrial-organizational psychology is to create standards for the professional in the field. Licensing requirements for I / O psychologists vary by state, however. According to SIOP’s policy on licensure, it is recognized that some states require that certain areas of I / O practice be licensed, however, it is still under consideration as to whether I / O practitioners are also psychologists, which would require licensure in the state in which they practice.90005

90002 If you are unsure whether you need to become licensed in your state, you should contact your state regulatory board or state psychology association. 90005

90013 What will I learn from my courses? 90014

90002 The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) recommends the following standards for cultural competence in I / O psychology practice: 90005

90025 90026 Ethics and values ​​90029 90026 Promote ethical organizations 90029 90026 Cognition and motivation 90029 90026 Decision making 90029 90026 Guiding one’s own professional behavior 90029 90026 Develop and implement organizational policies 90029 90026 Applying methods of psychology to business 90029 90026 Talent management 90029 90026 Assessment selection 90029 90026 Work-life balance 90029 90026 Leadership 90029 90050

90013 How long will it take? 90014

90002 Depending upon your level of dedication, an I / O psychology major can take the following time to complete: 90005

90025 90026 The bachelor’s program is a 4-year general psychology degree 90029 90026 Master’s degree programs generally require two years 90029 90026 Doctorate programs generally take between four and five years 90029 90026 Internships are available and a typical term is six to nine months 90029 90050

90013 Are online programs available? 90014

90002 Yes! Online programs for industrial-organizational psychologists are available for certain types of coursework and degrees and are usually for master’s-level programs.These courses are non-clinical and generally designed to prepare you to advance into human resources management and organizational leadership roles in the field. 90005

90002 Often, programs are interdisciplinary and combine psychology, behavioral sciences, and business. Online degree programs should be accredited, and in the case of industrial-organizational psychology, accreditation will come from one of the regional accrediting agencies in the U.S. 90005

90013 How much will my education cost? 90014

90002 A master’s is the required degree-level needed to practice I / O psychology.As one example, Capella University’s Master of Science in Psychology, Industrial / Organizational specialization program requires 55 quarter credits for graduation, and it costs $ 471 per credit. This amounts to $ 25,905 for the program. 90005

90002 Of course, this is just one school. In your research, you’ll find some schools will offer a master’s degree for less (and more). The same rule applies to undergraduate degrees. 90005

90002 The cost of bachelor’s degree programs varies depending upon the type of institution you attend.According to College Board’s Trends in College Pricing 2017-2018, the average annual cost * for a four-year, public institution runs around $ 9,970 for in-state tuition and $ 25,620 for out-of-state tuition. 90005

90002 The average annual cost for a four-year private non-profit school is $ 34,740 and $ 16,000 for a private for-profit school. 90005

90002 Master’s degree program tuition at in-state public institutions costs an average of $ 8,670 per year, and doctorate program tuition costs $ 10,830 per year at in-state public institutions.90005

90002 Attending an accredited school may allow you to apply for financial aid, whether the school you select is a traditional classroom or an online program. 90005

90002 * Cost of tuition only. Prices do not reflect other fees, books, room, and board 90005

90013 Are there prerequisites? 90014

90002 90003 Undergraduate: 90004 A strong college preparatory high school education is a good start for your industrial-organizational psychology degree program. Courses in sociology, statistics, political science, science, math, research methods, business, and psychology are important for prospective I / O psychologists.90005

90002 90003 Graduate: 90004 A completed, four-year bachelor’s degree in psychology, education or another field will prepare you for graduate school. Any electives you’ve taken in psychology and / or education will be valuable in your graduate work. 90005

90002 90003 GRE: 90004 Check with the institution and program you plan to apply to, to find out whether the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is not required for admission. If it’s not, but you’ve taken the test and have good scores, you may submit them for review with your admission materials.90005

90013 What accreditation is there for my program? 90014

90002 Accreditation shows that an institution or program meets standards of quality set forth by an accrediting agency and that it is committed not only to meet those standards but to continuously seek ways in which to improve the quality of education and training provided. 90005

90002 Since accreditation is primarily an issue for health care practitioners, the American Psychological Association (APA) does not accredit graduate programs in Industrial-Organizational Psychology as they do not consider the client of an I / O psychologist a person, but an organization.90005

90002 However, institutional accreditation is provided by regional and national associations of schools and colleges. There are six regional associations, each named after the region in which it operates (Middle States, New England, North Central, Northwest, Southern, Western). You will want to be certain your school is accredited by one of these regional associations. 90005

90002 Attending an accredited school may allow you to apply for financial aid, whether the school you select is a traditional classroom or online program.90005
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